New paper: Solar Cosmic Rays and Climate
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to show the public solar cosmic rays irradiated the early solar system after its birth five billion years (5 Ga) ago, still do, and influence Earth’s climate today. Cosmic rays are one of many ways the Sun’s pulsar core maintains invisible contact with atoms, lives and planets in the solar system. Cosmic rays produce tracks of ion pairs (charge separation) on traversing Earth’s atmosphere. The attractive force of water vapor condensation into water droplets along ion tracks produces electrically charged clouds, rain, lightning and thunder as frequent reminders a solar pulsar controls human destiny. 
[This paper appears in International Journal of Advanced Research, IJAR-12995, accepted for publication 13 Oct 2016 ]
Introduction:
Einstein (1905) discovered, Aston (1922) measured, then Weizsäcker (1935), Bethe and Bacher (1936) obscured the exact mass (m) stored as energy (E) in atoms of the chemical elements that comprise all matter. Kuroda (1992) – the scientist who noticed and reported a misunderstanding of nuclear energy after Aston’s lecture at the Imperial University of Tokyo on 13 June 1936 – died (Manuel, 2001), as Manuel et al. (2000; 2001a,b) were first reporting neutron-repulsion as the Sun’s primary source of energy. The next year Manuel et al. (2002) reported deep-seated magnetic fields from the Sun’s pulsar core or its super-conducting iron-rich mantle caused solar eruptions and climate change vs conventional views of solar magnetic fields (Solanki et al, 2006).
The universe expands because neutron-repulsion triggers emission of neutrons – compacted electron-proton (e-, p+) pairs from cores of galaxies and stars – that decay to the hydrogen atoms that are later discharged to interstellar space in stellar winds, flares, eruptions, and explosions (Manuel, 2011). Without deciding the mechanism (Manuel, 2002; Hwaung, 2012) that focuses stellar energy on cosmic ray particles, flares, eruptions, sunspots, collimated beams and bullets (Sahai, et al., 2016), we present evidence solar cosmic ray particles bom-barded the early solar system and still do so today.
Neutron repulsion was not accepted as the primary source of cosmic and solar energy (Manuel, 2011, 2012) until Manuel (2016a,b) identified the logical error obscuring neutron-repulsion in Weizsäcker-Bethe’s “nuclear binding energy” and Manuel (2016c,d) reaffirmed neutron-repulsion as a com-mon source of energy generating super-solar flares by the same mechanism that produces such erup-tions in younger stars with stronger surface magnetic fields (Karoff et al., 2016). This finding of super-solar flares – with one expected every thousand (~1,000) years – was widely reported (Clery, 2016; Persson, 2016; Gibney, 2016).
Deep-seated magnetic fields (Manuel et al., 2002) or compression (Hwaung, 2012) from a star’s com-pacted core (Toth, 1977; Manuel, 2012, 2016c) may continue accelerating hydrogen into cosmic rays as surface magnetic fields decrease and stellar radii increase in stellar evolution (Glagolevskij, 2014).
These recent findings confirm the basic misunder-standing of nuclear energy that Kuroda noted in his 1936 class-notes following Aston’s lecture at the Imperial University of Tokyo (Kuroda, 1992) and the validity of Kuroda’s insight into the beginning of the world, while standing in the ruins of Hiroshima one day in August 1945: “The sight before my eyes was just like the end of the world, but I also felt that the beginning of the world may have been just like this” (Kuroda, 1982, page 2). Richard Carrington (1859) had already reported the immediate effects on Earth from a large solar flare, Hess had received a Nobel Prize for discovering cosmic rays (Hess, 1936), and Forbush (1937, 1938) had reported impulsive decreases in cosmic ray intensity from solar-induced geomagnetic storms.
Perhaps Kuroda imagined that an even larger solar eruption, or a super-solar explosion birthed the world and rebirthed the Sun, as two of Kuroda’s former students finally suggested thirty years later (Manuel and Sabu, 1975), after they and their students started to uncover evidence that chemically and isotopically heterogeneous debris from a super-solar, supernova formed the entire solar system (Manuel et al, 1972).
Kuroda and Manuel (1970) had reported a common mass-dependent fractionation of the solar system’s neon and xenon isotopes before Manuel et al. (1972) found xenon in carbonaceous meteorites to be a mixture of isotopically distinct “strange xenon” (Xe-2 – with almost twice the normal abundances of 136Xe and 124Xe) – and mass fractionated “normal xenon” (Xe-1 – in air, the Sun and bulk meteorites).
Authors of the current report found only “normal xenon” (Xe-1) in meteoritic troilite (FeS) (Hwaung and Manuel, 1982) and concluded that this distinct mix of nucleogenetic xenon components was “dominant in a central Fe- and S-rich region of the proto-planetary nebula.” “Normal xenon” was therefore assumed for the bulk Sun in calculating the enrichment of lightweight elements and isotopes of other noble gases in the solar photosphere and in the solar wind from mass-dependent fractionation (Manuel and Hwaung, 1983). Their analysis showed the solar interior consists mostly of the same elements that comprise the matrix of ordinary meteorites and rocky planets: Fe, Ni, O, Si, S, and Mg. Measurements during the Galileo probe of Jupiter later confirmed the Sun’s iron-rich interior (Manuel et al., 1998).
The next section compares a recent summary of mainstream opinions on cosmic rays (Howell, 2016) with measurements and observations that suggest solar waste products are the correct answer to her lingering question, “What are cosmic rays?”
Results and Discussion:
1. Howell’s lingering question suggests an error in the first sentence of the report, “Cosmic rays are atom fragments that rain down on the Earth from outside of the solar system” (Howell, 2016). Schindler and Kearney (1972) and McCanney et al. (1998) reported direct observations of cosmic rays from the Sun. Measurements of -rays from a solar flare in Active Region 10039 on 23 July 2002 with the RHESSI spacecraft spectrometer revealed protons accelerated to the energy required to fuse hydrogen into helium, via the CNO cycle in closed solar magnetic loops at the solar surface (Mozina et al., 2006). The occurrence of this CNO cycle at the solar surface produced 15N over geologic time, and explained the otherwise mysterious increase in the 15N/14N ratio at the solar surface (Kerridge, 1975, 1993, Kim et al., 1995) over geologic time.
2. Table 1 (above) is a summary of the cosmic ray exposure of major types of meteorites in the solar system (Eugster et al., 2006).
Iron-rich supernova debris nearest the pulsar remnant formed iron meteorites, trapped “normal xenon” (Xe-1) and received the highest exposure to cosmic rays from the pulsar remnant. Stone meteorites formed further away, also trapped mostly “normal xenon” (Xe-1), and received less exposure to early cosmic rays. Carbonaceous meteorites formed even further from the pulsar remnant, trapped “strange xenon” (Xe-2) that Manuel and Hwaung (1983) predicted would be found in Jupiter and received the lowest exposure to cosmic rays from the supernova pulsar remnant.
3. Howell (2016) concluded cosmic rays “can be created in supernovas, there may be other sources available for cosmic ray creation. It also isn’t clear exactly how supernovas are able to make these cos-mic rays so fast”. Supernovas and super-stellar eruptions certainly release sufficient energy, but it is unclear how energy is focused on cosmic ray parti-cles, collimated beams and bullets (Sahai, et al., 2016) by deep-seated Meisner ejections of magnetic fields from a rotating, super-fluid, super-conductor (Ninham, 1963; Manuel et al., 2002) or simple compression (Hwaung, 2012). Ordinary stars have pulsar cores and iron-rich mantles, inside an outer veneer of gravitationally-retained hydrogen from neutron-emission and decay (Manuel, 2016a,b, c,d). This outer layer increases and the star expands during stellar evolution, from a young, T-Tauri type star with strong surface magnetic fields to the Red Giant stage, about to be reborn by discharging the outer layer in a supernova and starting over again
3. Measurements of xenon isotopes as Galileo probe descended in Jupiter atmosphere confirmed Manuel and Hwaung (1983) prediction of “strange” Jovian xenon. As shown below, hydrocarbon contam-ination increased as the probe descended and the apparent value of the (136Xe/134Xe) ratio decreased. The method described by Windler (2000) was used to calculate a value of 136Xe/134Xe = 1.04 +/- 0.06 for the point of zero hydrocarbon contamination from eleven mass-spectrometric scans.
Figure 1. Eleven mass-spectrometric sweeps of the mass-to-charge signals at m/e = 77, 134 and 136 as the Galileo probe descended in Jupiter’s atmosphere yield a value of 136Xe/134Xe = 1.04 +/- 0.06 for “hydrocarbon-free” xenon in Jupiter. Lewis et al. (1975) reported 136Xe/134Xe = 1.04 for the “strange xenon” (Xe-2) in Allende’s mineral separate, 3CS4.
4. Simple geometric consideration of the decrease in the 4 flux of cosmic rays as the 3rd power (cube) of distance from source illustrates why the local source of cosmic rays must be considered if the source of energy that powers ordinary stars, galaxies and the expanding cosmos is neutron repulsion (Manuel et al., 2000, 2001b,c, 2011, etc.). Earth’s closest star is the Sun, 1 AU away. The next closest one is ~3 x 105 AU (4.2 light years) away. The Crab Nebula, produced by the supernova explosion of a star in 1054 AD is ~4 x 108 AU (6,500 light years) away.
Thus the probability of a cosmic ray from the Sun striking Earth is ~3 x 1016 times more likely than the probability a cosmic ray from the next closest star would strike Earth, and ~6 x 1025 times more likely than the probability that a cosmic ray from the Crab Nebula would strike Earth.
Conclusion and Acknowledgements:
Invisible force fields hold Earth and other planets in a stream of waste products from the Sun – solar energy, solar neutrinos, solar wind, and solar cosmic rays. These produce ion-tracks in air, on which water vapor condenses to electrically charged clouds that discharge rain, lightening and thunder. We realize we know only a little. More will be revealed, if we adhere to basic principles of science.
Many students, friends and colleagues encouraged us to report the Sun’s influence on human affairs, although we have not yet shown if solar cosmic rays are produced by compression conversion of matter into energy (Hwaung, 2012) in the Sun or by the ac-celeration of solar hydrogen by impulsive Meisner emissions of deep-seated magnetic fields from the Sun’s super-conducting interior (Ninham, 1963). This is like deciding how neutron-repulsion causes emission of electrons from neutron-rich nuclei and proton-repulsion causes emission of positrons from proton-rich nuclei. Regardless how, they do.
References:
Aston, F.W. (1922): Mass spectra and isotopes, Nobel Prize Lecture: pp. 1-20.
Bethe, H.A. and Bacher, R.F. (1936): Nuclear physics A: Stationary states of nuclei. Reviews of Modern Physics, 8: 82-229.
Carrington, R.C. (1859): Description of a singular appearance seen in the Sun on September 1, 1959. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 20: 13-15.
Clery, D. (2016): Could Earth be fried by a ‘superflare’ from the Sun? Science News. http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/03/could-earth-be-fried-superflare-sun
Einstein, A. (1905): Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Korper. Annalen der Physik, 17: 891-921; Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energie-gehalt abhängig? ibidem, 18: 639-641.
Eugster, O., Herzog, G.F. and Caffee, M.W. (2006): Irradiation Records, Cosmic-Ray Exposure Ages, and Transfer Times of Meteorites, in Meteorites and the Early Solar System II (University of Arizona Press, July 1, 2006, 942 pp.) pages 829-851.
Forbush, S.E. (1937): On the effects in cosmic-ray intensity observed during the recent magnetic storm. Phys. Rev., 51: 1108-1109.
Forbush, S.E (1938): On the worldwide changes in cosmic ray intensity. Phy. Rev., 54: 975-988
Gibney, E. (2016): Mystery in the heavens. Nature, Featured News story, 334: 610-612. http://www.nature.com/polopoly_fs/1.20175!/menu/main/topColumns/topLeftColumn/pdf/534610a.pdf
Glagolevskij, Y.V. (2014): Evolution of the mag-netic fields of main-sequence CP-stars. Astrophysics, 57: 204-212.
Hess, V.F. (1936): Unsolved problems in physics: Tasks for the immediate future in cosmic ray studies, Nobel Prize Lecture, pp. 1-2. From Nobel Lectures, Physics 1922-1941, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1965
Howell, E. (2016): What are cosmic rays? Space.com This site, last accessed on 11 Oct 2016. http://www.space.com/32644-cosmic-rays.html is a summary of NASA’s reports on cosmic rays: http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/cosmic_rays1.html and http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/science/objects/cosmic_rays2.html
Hwaung, G. and Manuel O.K. (1982): Terrestrial-type xenon in meteoritic troilite. Nature, 299: 807-810.
Hwaung, G. (2012): Energy is the other form of matter. High compression is one of the ways to convert matter to energy. UNAIS (Unpublished Articles in Science): 3 pp. http://www.unais.net/review/energy-is-the-other-form-of-matter–high-compression-pressure-is-one-of-the-ways-to-convert-matter-to-energy/20
Karoff, C., Knudsen, M.F., Cat, P.D., Bonanno, A., Fogtmann-Schulz, A., Fu, J., Frasca, A., Inceoglu, F., Olsen, J., Zhang, Y., Hou, Y., Wang, Y., Shi, J. and Zhang, W. (2016): Observational evidence for enhanced magnetic activity of super-flare stars. Nature Communications, 7:11058 doi:10.1038/ncomms11058
Kerridge, J.F. (1975): Solar nitrogen: Evidence for a secular increase in the ratio of nitrogen-15 to nitrogen-14. Science, 188: 162-164.
Kerridge, J.F. (1993): Long term compositional variation in solar corpuscular radiation: Evidence from nitrogen isotopes in lunar regolith. Reviews of Geophysics, 31: 423-437.
Kim, J.S., Kim, Y., Marti, K. and Kerridge, J.F. (1995): Nitrogen isotope abundances in the recent solar wind. Nature, 375: 383-385.
Kuroda, P.K and Manuel, O.K. (1970): Mass fractionation and isotope anomalies in neon and xenon. Nature, 227: 1113-1116.
Kuroda, P.K. (1982): The Origin of the Chemical Elements and the Oklo Phenomenon (Springer, 165 pp):
Kuroda, P.K. (1992): My Early Days at the Imperial University of Tokyo, 1936-1949. University of Missouri-Rolla (Editor, O. Manuel) 69 pp.
Lewis, R.S., Srinivasan, B. and Anders, E. (1975): Host phase of strange xenon component in Allende.
Science, 190: 1251-1262.
Manuel, O.K., Hennecke, E.W. and Sabu, D.D. (1972): Xenon in carbonaceous chondrites. Nature Physical Science, 240: 99-101.
Manuel, O.K. and Sabu, D. D. (1975): Elemental and isotopic in homogeneities in noble gases: The case for local synthesis of the chemical elements. Trans. Missouri Acad. Sci. 9: 104-122.
Manuel, O.K. and Hwaung, G (1983): Solar abun-dances of the elements. Meteoritics, 18: 209-222
Manuel, O., Windler, K., Nolte, A., Johannes, L., Zirbel, J. and Ragland, D. (1998): Strange xenon in Jupiter. J. Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 238 (2): 119-121. Doi:10.1007/BF02385365
Manuel, O., Bolon, C., Katragada, A. and Insall, M. (2000): Attraction and repulsion of nucleons: Sour-ces of stellar energy. Journal of Fusion Energy, 19 (1): 93-98.
Manuel, O.K. (2001): Memorial: Paul K. Kuroda (1917-2001). Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 36: 1409-1410; Professor Paul Kazuo Kuroda 1917-2001. Geochemical Journal, 35, (3): 211-212
Manuel, O., Bolon, C., Zhong, M. and Jangam, P. (2001a): The Sun’s origin, composition and source of energy. In: 32nd Lunar & Planetary Science Conference, Paper #1041, Houston, TX, March 12-16, 2001.
Manuel, O., Miller, E. and Katragada, A. (2001b): Neutron repulsion confirmed as energy source. Journal of Fusion Energy, 20 (4): 197-201.
Manuel, O.K., Ninham, B.W. and Friberg, S.E. (2002): Super-fluidity in the solar interior: Impli-cations for solar eruptions and climate. Journal of Fusion Energy, 21 (3): 193-198.
Manuel, O.K. (2011): Is the Universe Expanding? Journal of Cosmology, 13: 4187-4190.
Manuel, O.K. (2012): Neutron repulsion. The Apeiron Journal, 19, pp. 123-150.
Manuel, O.K. (2016a): Neutron repulsion – Powers beyond the dreams of scientific fiction. Internation-al Education and Research Journal, 2 (8): 43-45.
Manuel, O.K. (2016b): Neutron repulsion – Social costs from overlooking this power. International Journal of Advanced Research, 4 (8): 1633-38.
Manuel, O.K. (2016c): Solar energy. International Education & Research Journal, 2 (5), pp. 30-35.
Manuel, O.K. (2016d): Neutron repulsion. In: “New Dawn of Truth” – The London 2016 Conference on Climate Change: Science & Geoethics – Conference volume of extended abstracts & commentary notes, 3rd revision (N.-A. Mörner, editor, ResearchGate Publication Number 30601327, 2016) pp. 86-87.
McCanney, J.M., Dmitriev, A.N., Goodwin, G.G., Crockett, E.L. and Ward, R. (1998): Cosmic rays from the Sun – A millennium group discovery http://www.tmgnow.com/repository/solar/cosmicrays.html (The Truth In Science Team)
Mozina, M., Ratcliff, H. and Manuel, O. (2006): Observational confirmation of the Sun’s CNO cycle. J. Fusion Energy, 25: 141-144.
Ninham, B. W. (1963): Charged Bose gas in astro-physics. Physics Letters, 4: 278-279.
Persson, C.P. (2016): Sun can emit super-flares every 1000 years. Nordic Science http://sciencenordic.com/sun-can-emit-superflares-every-1000-years
Sahai, R., Scibelli, and Morris, M.R. (2016): High-speed bullet ejections during the AGB-to-Planetary Nebula Transition: HST observations of the carbon star, V Hydrae. The Astrophysical Journal, 87 (2): 92.
Schindler, S.M. and Kearney, P.D. (1972): Evidence for solar particle production above ~75 GeV. Nature, 237: 503-505.
Solanki, S.S., Inhester, B. and Schussler, M. (2006): The solar magnetic field. Reports on Progress in Physics, 69: 563-668.
Toth, P. (1977): Is the Sun a pulsar? Nature, 270: 159-160. doi:10.1038/270159a0
Weizsäcker, C. F. v. (1935): Zur Theorie der Kern-massen, Zeitschrift für Physik A: Hadrons and Nuclei, 96: 431-458.
Windler, K. (2000) Strange xenon isotope ratios in Jupiter. In: Proceedings of the 1999 ACS Symposi-um (organized by Glenn Seaborg and O. Manuel): The Origin of Elements in the Solar System: Impli-cations of Post-1957 Observations (O. Manuel, edi-tor, Kluwer/Plenum Publishers, 2000) pp. 519-527.
Trackback from your site.