A Constant Universe – Section Two
1 INTRODUCTION, In Section One, it was concluded:
1) If the constellations are moving apart at whatever speed, and are simultaneously being replaced by some mass derived from energy, this could provide another explanation for the evolution of the universe, which does not involve a big bang explanation.
2) The evidence for the existence of black holes is strong, given the apparent gravitational effects and the Hubble discovery of issuing rays coming from black hole regions.
3) It is apparent that the force of gravity varies widely throughout the universe.
4) V616 is likely to be involved if black holes have any influence on our solar system.
Section Two explores how warped space/time may be, colliding particles, Newton’s law of universal gravitation, the Kruskal Szekeres hyperbolic diagram, and Max Plank’s Constant.
2 HOW BIG IS THE UNIVERSE?
The short answer is nobody knows, but there is an intriguing possibility that the universe is warped by space-time. 
Consider the barber’s chair experiment where two mirrors are placed in front and behind the client. The overhead light image in Figure 4 seems to disappear into infinity through multiple reflections.
If space-time is bent to this extent, is it possible that images at the limit of identification are mirror images of much nearer objects, but displaced by time and development to the extent that paired images are no longer easy to compare?
In this event, the universe could be much smaller than we anticipate.
3 MASS COLLISIONS
Two bodies on a collision course normally bounce off each other as with billiard balls. However, in the case of meteorites entering Earth’s atmosphere there is usually absorption of the smaller body with the Earth, albeit with heat and melting involved. In the case of Black Holes, we move to a much higher level of absorption where the incoming body appears to be completely degraded atom by atom.
Isaac Newton’s famous Law of Universal Gravitation, illustrated in Figure 5, states the attractive force (F) between two bodies is proportional to the product of their masses (m1 and m2), and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them.
Two important aspect of this formula are:
1) The term r, because as a mass gets close to a Black Hole, the distance r moves towards zero. If we use our calculators to divide any number by zero, we finish up with a data error message.
2) The constant G is regarded as a fixed measured quantity with a defined limit of accuracy. This assumption can apply in regions close to our solar system, but may not be applicable near black hole regions where values for G appear to be vastly different.
Taking a closer look at what happens just before “r” reaches zero. Assume we have a mass approaching the Black Hole from the right hand side in Figure 6, and the value of “r” starts to reduce towards zero. As the mass approaches the Black Hole it has two choices, it can either shoot up and/or down the vertical axis.
Theoretically, it can continue doing this until it reaches infinity in either direction, but never quite hitting either vertical axes. These curve shapes are described as hyperbolas, and the axes the curves approach are known as asymptotes.
Mathematicians Kruskal and Szekeres determined that there are four possible hyperbolas associated with zero divisions, and summarised their findings in the diagram shown in Figure 7.
It appears that getting ever closer to the asymptote axes associated with Black Holes is far from straight forward. At Black Holes, these axes are also described as event horizons. Now, consider how close we can get to the axes, before things start to change dramatically.
4 THE PLANCK CONSTANT
In 1900 Max Planck proposed that material travelling down a curve actually travels in small steps, rather than a continuous smooth progression. This revelation formed the basis for the theory of quantum mechanics.
The theory involves many technical considerations which are the foundations for a separate branch of academic study with many conundrums and many alternative views. For the purpose of this discussion we will concentrate on the founding principle that the dimension of the Plank Constant is equivalent to the space between successive electron rings in an atomic structure, Figure 8.
A molecule can be graphically represented Figure 9 as a central nucleus comprising some positively charged protons together with some neutrally charged neutrons. Orbiting around the nucleus are the negatively charged electrons.
As a molecule approaches a Black Hole, the outer extremities, or the electrons, are the first to be sheared away by the high gravitational forces present at the event horizon. The rings of negatively charged electrons progressively fall away in a series of steps in accordance with Planck’s theory.
Eventually, the molecule only consists of positively charged protons and neutrons. The positively charge protons are very unstable as the similar charges repel each other, so the protons exit as cosmic radiation, and sometimes as a light beam of photons, as seen by the Hubble Telescope in Figure 3.
Neutrons remain and are absorbed at the site. They serve to increase the mass of the structure, and hence the gravitational pull associated with the Black Hole.
5 INVERSE SQUARE LAW
In physics, an inverse-square law is any physical law stating that a specified physical quantity or intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source of that physical quantity.
The equation and graphic form are as illustrated, in Figure 5 and Figure 10 . In basic terms this law means that items faraway look smaller than the same item seen up close.
At Black Holes, we have assumed the electrons stripped from the outside molecular shells are absorbed by the Black Hole.
Stripping electrons from a molecule shell is a very energy intensive activity, and much less than the gravitational force attracting an electron to a molecule.
It is reported that:
“the gravitational force can appear extremely weak compared with other fundamental forces. For example, the gravitational force (Fg) between an electron and proton one meter (d1) apart is approximately 10-67 newton, while the electromagnetic force between the same two particles still I metre apart is approximately 10-28newton. Both these forces are weak when compared with the forces we are able to experience directly, but the electromagnetic force in this example is some 39 orders of magnitude (i.e. 1039) greater than the force of gravity—which is even greater than the ratio between the mass of a human and the mass of the Solar System!”
This information is useful for checking to see how far away a black hole would have to be from Earth if the cause of our gravity net turned out to be a black hole stripping electrons. Now we can check to see if the gravitational attraction on Earth is related to the much stronger electromagnetic force at a black hole, but weakened by the inverse square law applied over a significant interstellar distance.
Calculations show that the distance from Earth to the source of our gravity net would be 3,343 light years.
Now we can check how that distance compares with what we know about the Milky Way regional black holes.
6 OUR MILKY WAY GALAXY
Earth is located in the Solar System on one of the outer arms of the Milky Way, Figure 11.
One of the more imposing Black Holes in our region goes by the title of A0620-00/V616 Mon, (V616) described as
“This binary system is located at a distance of approximately 3,000 light years, making the system the likely location of the nearest known Black Hole.”
Other possible Milky Way Black Hole objects are shown in Figure 12, and are depicted in estimated size as well as geographical relation to the Solar System, by converting polar astronomical units to Cartesian 3D units.
Several stellar mass black holes have been tentatively identified in our galaxy, but the nearest structure with the clearest properties of a black hole is at V616.
Of note is the recent LIGO detection of gravitational waves previously discussed on page 7 of GRAVISPHERES: What’s the matter with Dark Matter? This provides further evidence for the existence of black holes.
Interim Conclusions:
1) The size of the universe remains an unknown quantity, as does its age which may be due to continuously recycling matter with energy.
2) Newton’s universal law of gravitation appears to fail at black holes, and regions remote from our solar system.
3) The Kruskal and Szekeres hyperbola diagram in combination with the Max Plank Constant appears to offer the best description of how matter degrades and converts at black holes.
4) Application of the Inverse Square Law to an electron’s electrostatic force and gravitational attraction shows that V616 is a strong candidate for being the source of Earth’s gravitation.
5) The LIGO findings add considerable evidence for the presence of black holes.
In Section Three we will look at Gravitation nets, is big G a constant or a variable? and the mysterious operation of black holes.
References:
[1] 1 The Kruskal Szerkeres diagram is simply derived by Glenn Rowe who was a lecturer in mathematics and then computing at the University of Dundee from May 1984 until December 2008. His presentation Kruskal-Szekeres coordinates and the event horizon is available online at http://www.physicspages.com/2013/11/27/kruskal-szekeres-coordinates-and-the-event-horizon/
[1] As discussed by S. W. Hawking and G. F. R. Ellis (1975). The large scale structure of space-time. Cambridge University Press.
Thorne, Kip S.; Misner, Charles; Wheeler, John (1973). Gravitation. W. H. Freeman and Company.
Wald, Robert M. (1984). General Relativity. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
- A. Peacock (1999). Cosmological Physics. Cambridge University Press.
[1] Barry N.Taylor of the Data Center in close collaboration with Peter J. Mohr of the Physical Measurement Laboratory’s Atomic Physics Division, Termed the “2014 CODATA recommended values,” they are generally recognized worldwide for use in all fields of science and technology. The values became available on 25 June 2015 and replaced the 2010 CODATA set. They are based on all of the data available through 31 December 2014. Available: http://physics.nist.gov
[1] Diagram at Web reference:http://chemistry.tutorvista.com/nuclear-chemistry/protons-and-neutrons.html?view=simple
[1] Sharma (2008). Atomic And Nuclear Physics. Pearson Education India. p. 478. ISBN 978-81-317-1924-4. Cosmic rays are immensely high-energy radiation, mainly originating outside the Solar System.[1] They may produce showers of secondary particles that penetrate and impact the Earth’s atmosphere and sometimes even reach the surface. Composed primarily of high-energy protons and atomic nuclei, they are of mysterious origin.
[1] Diagram and relationship as per website:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse-square_law
[1] George T. Gillies. “The Newtonian gravitational constant: recent measurements and related studies”. Reports on Progress in Physics, 60:151-225, 1997. Text at http://www.worldwizzy.com/library/Gravitational_constant
[1] The Hubble Telescope Special Feature site at http://hubblesite.org/explore_astronomy/ reports “The Milky Way galaxy contains some 100 billion stars. Roughly one out of every thousand stars that form is massive enough to become a black hole. Therefore, our galaxy must harbor some 100 million stellar-mass black holes.”
[1] Gelino, Dawn M., et al. “A Multiwavelength, Multiepoch Study of the Soft X-Ray Transient Prototype, V616 Monocerotis (A0620-00)”. The Astronomical Journal, Volume 122, Issue 5, pp. 2668-2678, November 2001.
Thomas E. Harrison, Steve B. Howell, Paula Szkody, France A. Cordova; “The Nature of the Secondary Star in the Black Hole X-Ray Transient V616 Mon (=A0620-00)”; The Astronomical Journal, Volume 133, Issue 1, pp. 162-168. January 2007; arXiv:astro-ph/0609535 ; Bibcode: 2007AJ….133..162H ; doi:10.1086/509572
University of Texas observatory retrieved 19/09/2011
Web Reference:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A0620-00
[1] Robert A Beatty 2015 Diagram composed from Milky Way estimates of Black Hole locations and presented in Cartesian coordinates with Earth at origin.
Abstract- T.R.Marsh,E.L.Robinson,J.H.Woods absabs.harvard retrieved 24/7/2010
T.R.Marsh,E.L.Robinson,J.H.Wood (1993) The Royal Astronomical Society (copyright) retrieved 19/09/2011
university of Texas observatory retrieved 19/09/2011
[1] The Hubble Telescope Special Feature site at http://hubblesite.org/explore_astronomy/ reports “The Milky Way galaxy contains some 100 billion stars. Roughly one out of every thousand stars that form is massive enough to become a black hole. Therefore, our galaxy must harbor some 100 million stellar-mass black holes.”
[1] https://principia-scientific.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/PROM-Gravispheres.pdf
Trackback from your site.