A Constant Universe – Section Three
1 INTRODUCTION: Section Two concluded:
The size of the universe remains an unknown quantity, as does its age which may be due to continuously recycling matter with energy.
Newton’s universal law of gravitation appears to fail at black holes, and regions remote from our solar system.
The Kruskal and Szekeres hyperbola diagram in combination with the Max Plank Constant appears to offer the best description of how matter degrades and converts at black holes.
Application of the Inverse Square Law to an electron’s electrostatic force and gravitational attraction shows that V616 is a strong candidate for being the source of Earth’s gravitation.
The LIGO findings add considerable evidence for the presence of black holes.
2 GRAVITATIONAL NET
Figure 13 Depiction of Gravitational Net
Gravitation is frequently depicted as a net1 (Figure 13) which constrains orbiting bodies to follow a stable path, and is generally considered as a force of attraction between two masses.
It may be more accurate to regard gravitation as a surface tension effect drawing two masses together, while the centrifugal force keeps them separated. Rhythmic variations between the two forces results in elliptical orbits.
The biggest black hole in the Milky Way is at its centre and named Sagittarius A[1] and is approximately 25,900 ly away from Earth. The Inverse Square Law tells us the effect on Earth’s gravitation from this large source is only 1.4{154653b9ea5f83bbbf00f55de12e21cba2da5b4b158a426ee0e27ae0c1b44117} as strong, because of the much greater distance.
3 IS BIG G A CONSTANT OR VARIABLE?
Big G has an interesting genesis starting from the work by Henry Cavendish.[2] As noted previously the comparison between the gravitational force of attraction between an electron and a proton, compared to that with the much stronger electromagnetic force between the same two objects, is 39 times greater, and if there is a connection between these two factors, the responsible black hole must lie some 3,343 light years (ly) away from Earth.
This seems a logical conclusion because we know that gravitational forces are very strong at black holes, but there is no suggestion as to how far that influence extends. If gravity is from an electromagnetic force, the influence should extend, to a waning extent, more or less indefinitely.
The value for G is quoted (at the Cavendish reference)
“G = 6.693 × 10−11 cubic meters per kilogram second squared, with a standard error of the mean of ±0.027 × 10−11 and a systematic error of ±0.021 × 10−11 cubic meters per kilogram second squared.”
The systemic error amounts to +/- 0.021/6.693 = 0.0031376. If we apply this limit of accuracy to the black hole distance, we find 0.0031376 x 3,343ly = +/-10.49ly.
Figure 14. Gravity Isogams Radiating from a Central Black Hole
The solar system Oort Cloud has a diameter 1.58ly (well inside the 10.49ly G accuracy limit). So G can only be regarded as constant over solar system scale distances.
When we consider our gravisphere type distances G increases, and gravity is regarded as a polar force with the positive end directed towards the Monoceros Nebula.
We expect that G at V616 surface has a value 39 times greater than on earth, or G = 6.693 × 1028 cubic meters per kilogram second squared.
At these levels the concept of “dark matter” is not required to account for the missing gravity as postulated by Cornell for example.
Figure 14 [3] illustrates how gravity isogams may reduce with distance from the central black hole. Planetary systems operating within such a gravisphere will operate under Kepler’s[4] laws of planetary motion, but in the case of Kepler’s third law, at G values appropriate to that particular location in the Gravisphere.
These issues were previously considered in our GRAVISPHERES report where the gravity isogam function was defined mathematically as Big = with y being the distance from the black hole in light years. Graphically the relationship shows in Figure 15 with the time dilation factor included as a reciprocal of the isogam relationship.
Figure 15 – Time and Gravity variations with distance from a central black hole.
4 BLACK HOLE MYSTERIES
The Figure 6 Kruskal Szekeres (KS Diagram) reveals four regional components at a black hole. More detail is suggested for how the KS Diagram may operate at black holes, as shown in Figure 16.[5] Incoming mass entering a black hole approaches the first event horizon and starts to follow both sides of a hyperbolic path which initially strips off the electrons due to their peripheral positions around atoms.
These are followed by the protons which are immediately expelled from the Black Hole due to their positive charge. These particles form into cosmic rays as seen emerging from either ends of the Black Hole axis in some space photographs, including Figure 3 Hubble Telescope Image.
The neutrons have no electrical charge and remain within the black hole thereby adding to its mass.
The electrons move across to the second event horizon and emerge on the other side of the black hole at either end of the hyperbolic axis. Electrons emerging from the right hand side spin in a clockwise direction, and assume a positive charge – positrons. Electrons emerging from the left hand end have an anticlockwise spin with negative charge.
Figure 16 Black Hole Operations.
Figure 17: Positrons Galore
As the positrons and electrons move down the hyperbolic axis they associate to form a neutrally charged radiating gravitation net, which is stronger near the black hole and weaker with increasing distance, and following the inverse square law.
It is interesting to note the discovery of positrons in space: Physics Today [6] reports
“An excess of positrons has been detected by the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS), which collects cosmic rays from its perch on the International Space Station. Although cosmic rays are composed of many different types of particles, including positrons, the increase noted by the AMS could be an indication of the presence of dark matter”,
and as similarly shown in Figure 17.[7]
The inverse square law connection between our nearest black hole and Earth, suggests gravity nets have properties similar to wave action.
5 WAVES
Wave actions come in two distinct categories: Mechanical waves, and Electromagnetic waves. Mechanical waves are the easiest to conceive with sea waves being a good example of a common variety. Sea waves operate in a wide variety of physical forms, and it is worth reminding ourselves of some of these features.[8]
Of particular note is the impact waves have on shorelines and the obvious pressure that wave action exerts on some coast lines. This raises the question of what would happen if the coasts were not fixed, but free to move in space as black holes appear to.
We can imagine the effect wave action has on a raft floating in a pool with no motive power, other than an eccentric drive motor designed to make the raft bob up and down on the spot, creating a radiating wave pattern.
Figure 18 Two rafts moving apart due to interacting wave action.
Imagine two such rafts in the pool, (Figure 18)[9] both rafts are affected by the wave action of the adjacent raft, forcing them to move apart. Similarly, several such floating rafts could all be expected to move away from each other.
Mechanical waves do not travel through the vacuum of space, due to a lack of a transporting medium. However, Electromagnetic Waves can travel through a vacuum.
It is interesting to see just how EM waves propagate through space, and to compare that action with mechanical waves.[10]
Figure 19 Electromagnetic Momentum.
This raises the question of whether electromagnetic waves can exert any pressure.
Wave pressure from electromagnetic waves can be quantified. It is a very small amount, but certainly does exist and is described as radiation pressure. Another way to describe this effect is to consider it as shown in Figure 19 Electromagnetic Momentum.[11]
This treatise refers to these waves as Electromagnetic Gravity Strings (EGS) since elecromagnetic radiations can exert pressure, and if they are formed at black holes, then black holes can move away from other black holes. In this way, EGS provides a mechanism to explain the Expanding Universe even though the rate of that expansion may have been over stated through doubtful application of the Doppler Effect.
EGS like so many other physical phenomena may have yin and yang components:
Magnetic poles attract when the poles are dissimilar and repel when they are the same.
Static electrical charges repel and unlike charges attract.
It appears possible EGS can repel other gravity waves, but also cause mass objects in their fields of influence to attract one another.
This provides an interesting combination of physical effects at Gravispheres. We have the attractive force of gravity between the massive black holes, then there is the repulsion effect of the electromagnetic momentum associated with EGS, and the surface of black holes are electrically charged with positrons providing a repelling force to any approaching black hole. It is reasonable to speculate that black holes also include some level of magnetic flux which might influence their association with other black holes.
The LIGO experiments prove that black holes do collide, so the combination of physical effects referred to must be a delicately balanced force matrix which is generally in balance, but can become unstable resulting in black holes with their gravispheres, either combining or moving apart.
How EGS radiations transmit is a challenging analysis. The Gravispheres Report[12] suggests mechanisms which cater for association over long distances, as well as instantaneous reaction not reliant on the speed of light. These issues are considered in that report at paragraphs 3. Matter Waves, and 4. Hawking Radiation.
Interim Conclusions
Electromagnetic repulsion force is weaker than the strongest gravitational attractive force, but electromagnetic force has a longer range.
Gravitational force keeps gravispheres associated over short distances, while electromagnetic force keeps them separated over longer distances.
ion between our nearest Black HThe inverse square law connection between our nearest black hole and Earth, suggests gravity nets have properties similar to wave action.
Gravitational forces are very strong at black holes, but there is no general suggestion as to how far that influence extends
G can only be regarded as constant over solar system distance measurements. Inter galactic distances show G should be regarded as a variable polar force.
Black holes can combine, or move apart, depending on the balance between attraction and repulsion forces.
In Section Four we will review aspects of the GRAVISPHERES report,12 and the effect gravispheres have on spiral galaxies, converting energy to mass, the difference between fixed and elastic links, as well as the effect this has on Earth’s mass.
References:
[1] Reynolds 2008 Overbye, Dennis (8 June 2015). “Black Hole Hunters”. NASA. Retrieved 8 June 2015. Overbye, Dennis; Corum, Jonathan; Drakeford, Jason (8 June 2015). “Video: Peering Into a Black Hole”. New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 9 June 2015. Cited at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagittarius_A*
[2] http://units.wikia.com/wiki/Gravitational_constant
[3] Robert Beatty illustration
[4] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler{154653b9ea5f83bbbf00f55de12e21cba2da5b4b158a426ee0e27ae0c1b44117}27s_laws_of_planetary_motion
[5] Robert A Beatty 2015 Collage diagram depicting physical actions possibly occurring at a Black Hole. Including Web references A:http://www.startalkradio.net/show/cosmic-queries-gravity-repeat/
B:http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-a-black-hole-k4.html
C:http://phys.org/news/2013-09-goodbye-big-black-hole-theory.html
[6] Physics Today 22 September 2014 Excess of positrons in space may be indication of dark matter AIP Scitation
[7] Stephane Coutu, April 3, 2013• Physics 6, 40 Viewpoint: Positrons Galore Institute for Gravitation and the Cosmos, Departments of Physics and of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802-6300, USA
[8] Water Encyclopedia, Web reference:http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Tw-Z/Waves.html
[9] Robert A Beatty 2015 Schematic drawing showing possible result from opposing waves actions.
[10] The Physics Classroom Propagation of an Electromagnetic Wave. Website:http://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/waves/em.cfm
[11] Known as the John Henry Poynting (1852-1914) vector, radiation momentum. Radiation pressure is the pressure exerted upon any surface exposed to electromagnetic radiation. Website:https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiation_pressure
[12] https://principia-scientific.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/PROM-Gravispheres.pdf
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