Hypersphere World-Universe Model: Centre of Our Galaxy
Image: Philosophy Forum
In 1937, Paul Dirac proposed the Large Number Hypothesis and the Hypothesis of the variable gravitational “constant”; and later added the notion of continuous creation of Matter in the World.
The developed Hypersphere World–Universe Model (WUM) follows these ideas, albeit introducing a different mechanism of matter creation. In this paper, we show that WUM is a natural continuation of Classical Physics and it can already serve as a basis for a New Cosmology proposed by Paul Dirac.In 2013, WUM predicted the values of the following Cosmological parameters: gravitational, concentration of intergalactic plasma, and the minimum energy of photons, which were experimentally confirmed in 2015 –2018.
“The Discovery of a Supermassive Compact Object at the Centre of Our Galaxy” (Nobel Prize in Physics 2020) made by Prof.R. Genzel and A. Ghez is a confirmation of one of the most important predictions of WUM in 2013: “Macro objects of the World have cores made up of the discussed DM particles. Other particles, including DM and baryonic matter, form shells surrounding the cores”.
1. Introduction
In our view, we should make use of a number of hypotheses unknown and forgotten by mainstream scientific community in order to elaborate a New Cosmology. Below we will describe the Hypotheses belonging to classical physicists such as Newton, Le Sage, McCullagh, Riemann, Heaviside, Tesla, and Dirac and develop them in frames of WUM. Please pay tribute to these great physicists!The presented Hypotheses are not new, and we do not claim credit for them.
In fact, we are developing the existent Hypothesis and proposing new Hypothesis in frames of WUM. The main objective of the Model is to unify and simplify existing results in Classical Physics into a single coherent picture of a New Cosmology.Many results obtained in WUM are quoted in the current work without a full justification; an interested reader is encouraged to view the referenced papers in such cases.Cosmology is a branch of Classical Physics. It should then be described by classical notions, which define emergent phenomena.
By definition, an emergent phenomenon is a property that is a result of simple interactions that work cooperatively to create a more complex interaction. Physically, simple interactions occur at a microscopic level, and the collective result can be observed at a macroscopic level.
2. Classical Physics
In this Section we describe principal milestones in Classical Physics. Based on the analysis of measured physical constants we conclude that the most important Fundamental constants could be calculated before Quantum Mechanics [1].
Maxwell’s equationswere published by J. C. Maxwell in 1861 [2]. He calculated the velocity of electromagnetic waves from the value of the electrodynamic constantcmeasured by Weber andKohlrausch in 1857 [3] and noticed that the calculated velocity was very close to the velocity of lightmeasured by Fizeau in 1849 [4]. This observation made him suggest that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon [5]
We emphasize that c in Maxwell’s equations is the electrodynamic constantbut not the speed of light in vacuum.By definition, the electrodynamic constant cis the ratio of the absolute electromagnetic unit of charge eto the absolute electrostatic unit of charge e/c, where eis the elementary charge.It is worth noting that the speed of light in vacuum, commonly denoted as c , is not related to the World in our Model, because there is no Vacuum in it. Instead, there is the Medium of the World consisting of elementary particles.
Rydberg constant 𝑅∞is a physical constant relating to atomic spectra. The constant first arose in 1888 as an empirical fitting parameter in the Rydberg formula for the hydrogen spectral series [6].Electron Charge–to–Mass Ratio 𝑒/𝑚𝑒is a Quantity in experimental physics. It bears significance because the electron mass 𝑚𝑒cannot be measured directly. The 𝑒/𝑚𝑒ratio of an electron was successfully measured by J. J. Thomson in 1897 [7].
We name it after Thomson: 𝑅𝑇≡𝑒/𝑚𝑒.Planck Constant hwas suggested by Max Planck in 1901 as the result of investigating the problem of black–body radiation. He used Boltzmann’s equation from Statistical Thermodynamics: 𝑆=𝑘𝐵ln𝑊that shows the relationship between entropy Sand the number of ways the atoms or molecules of a thermodynamic system can be arranged (𝑘𝐵is the Boltzmann constant) [8]. Based on the experimentally measured values of the constants 𝑅∞, 𝑅𝑇, c ,h we calculate the most important constantsin WUM as follows [1]:
3. Hypotheses Revisited by WUM
3.1. Aether
Physical Aether was suggested as early as 17th century, by Isaac Newton. Following the work of Thomas Young (1804) and Augustin–Jean Fresnel (1816), it was believed that light propagates as a transverse wave within an elastic medium called Luminiferous Aether. At that time, it was realized that Aether could not be an elastic matter of an ordinary type that can only transmit longitudinal waves.
Unique properties of Aether were discussed by James McCullagh in 1846 who proposed a theory of a rotationally elastic medium, i.e., a medium in which every particle resists absolute rotation. This theory produces equations analogous to Maxwell’s electromagnetic equations [9]. Aether with these properties can transmit transverse waves. Luminiferous Aether was abandoned in 1905.
In later years there have been classical physicists who advocated the existence of Aether:
- Nikola Tesla declared in 1937 in “Prepared Statement on the 81st birthday observance”:“All attempts to explain the workings of the universe without recognizing the existence of the aether and the indispensable function it plays in the phenomena are futile and destined to oblivion”[10];
- Paul Dirac stated in 1951 in the article in Nature, titled “Is there an Aether?” that “we are rather forced to have an aether”[11].
There are no Luminiferous Aether and Vacuum in WUM.The Model introducesthe Medium of the World, which is composed of stable elementary particles: protons, electrons, photons, neutrinos, and Dark Matter Particles (DMPs). The existence of the Medium is a principal point of WUM. It follows from the observations of Intergalactic Plasma; Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation; Far-Infrared Background Radiation. According to WUM, inter-galactic voids discussed by astronomers are, in fact, examples of the Medium in its purest. The Medium is the absolute frame of reference [1].
3.2. Le Sage’s Theory of Gravitation
Wikipedia summarizes this theory as“a mechanical explanation for Newton’s gravitational force in terms of streams of tiny unseen particles (which Le Sage called ultra–mundane corpuscles) impacting all material objects from all directions. According to this model, any two material bodies partially shield each other from the impinging corpuscles, resulting in a net imbalance in the pressure exerted by the impact of corpuscles on the bodies, tending to drive the bodies together”.
According to WUM, the energy density of the Medium 𝜌𝑀is 2/3 of the total energy density of the World 𝜌𝑊in all cosmological times. The energy density of all Macroobjects adds up to 1/3 of 𝜌𝑊 throughout the World’s evolution. The relative energy density of DMPsis about 92.8% and Ordinary Particles (protons, electrons, photons, and neutrinos) –about 7.2% . A time–varying gravitational parameter Gis proportional to the time–varying𝜌𝑀[12]. In frames of WUM:
- DMPs are “Le Sage’s ultra–mundane corpuscles”;
- Le Sage’s theory of gravitation defines Gravity as an emergent phenomenon;
- Gravity is not an interaction but a manifestation of the Medium.
3.3. Hypersphere UniverseIn 1854, Georg Riemann proposed Hypersphere as a model of a finite universe [13].
WUM: Before the Beginning of the World there was nothing but an Eternal Universe. About 14.22 billion years ago the World was started by a fluctuation in the Eternal Universe, and the Nucleus of the World, a 4D ball, was born. An extrapolated Nucleus radius at the Beginning was equal to 𝑎. The Finite World is a 3D Hypersphere that is the surface of the 4D Nucleus. All points of the hypersphere are equivalent; there are no preferred centers or boundary of the World [14]. The extrapolated energy density of the World at the Beginning was four orders of magnitude smaller than the nuclear energy density [15].
3.4. Gravitoelectromagnetism
Gravitoelectromagnetism (GEM) refers to a set of formal analogies between the equations for Electromagnetism and relativistic gravitation. GEM is an approximation to Einstein’s field equations for General Relativity in the weak field limit. H. Thirring pointed out this analogy in his “On the formal analogy between the basic electromagnetic equations and Einstein’s gravity equations in first approximation” paper published in 1918 [16].
The equations for GEM were first published in 1893 by O. Heaviside as a separate theory expanding Newton’s law [17]. WUMfollows this theory. In most cases of weak gravitational fields, we can neglect the influence of General Relativity effects. For example, the surface gravity of the Earth equals: 𝑔=9.80665𝑚𝑠−2and a general relativity acceleration is ~3×10−10𝑚𝑠−2[18]. In case of strong gravitationalfields, we should use the Einstein’s field equations for General Relativity.
3.5. Dirac Large Number Hypothesis
In 1937, Paul Dirac in the paper “A new basis for cosmology” said [19]:“Since general relativity explains so well local gravitational phenomena, we should expect it to have some applicability to the universe as a whole. We cannot, however, expect it to apply with respect to the metric provided by the atomic constants, since with this metric the “gravitational constant” is not constant but varies with the epoch.
We have, in fact, the ratio of the gravitational force to the electric force between electron and proton varying in inverse proportion to the epoch, and since, with our atomic units of time, distance and mass, the electric force between electron and proton at a constant distance apart is constant, the gravitational force between them must be inversely proportional to the epoch. Thus, the gravitational constant will be inversely proportional to the epoch”.
In Summary, he concluded:“It is proposed that all the very large dimensionless numberswhich can be constructed from the important natural constants of cosmology and atomic theory are connected by simple mathematical relationsinvolving coefficients of the order of magnitude unity. The main consequences of this assumption are investigated, and it is found that a satisfactory theory of cosmology can be built up from it”.
WUM follows the idea of time–varying Gand introduces a dimensionless time–varying quantityQ ,that is, in fact, the Dirac Large Number, which in present epoch equals to: 𝑄=0.759972×1040. Gcan be calculated from the value of the parameter Q [14]:
- Concentration of Intergalactic Plasma 𝑛𝐼𝐺𝑃;
- Minimum Energy of Photons𝐸𝑝ℎ;•Temperature of the Microwave Background Radiation𝑇𝑀𝐵𝑅;
- Temperature of the Far–Infrared Background Radiation peak𝑇𝐹𝐼𝑅𝐵.
These PCPs belong to the Medium of the World. There are no Aether and Vacuum in WUM.
3.6. Creation of Matter
In 1964, F. Hoyle and J. V. Narlikar offered an explanation for the appearance of new matter by postulating the existence of what they dubbed the “Creation field” [20]. In 1974, Paul Dirac discussed continuous creation of matter by additive (uniformly throughout space) and multiplicative mechanism (proportional to the amount of existing matter) [21]. WUM:The 3D World, which is a Hypersphere of 4D Nucleus, was started by a fluctuation in the Eternal Universe.
4D Nucleus is expanding in the fourth spatial dimension, and its surface, the Hypersphere, is likewise expanding. The radius of the Nucleus Ris increasing with speed 𝑐(gravitodynamic constant) for the absolute cosmological time𝜏from the Beginning and equals to 𝑅= 𝑐𝜏. By definition, the gravitodynamic constantcis the ratio of the absolute gravitomagnetic unit of charge 𝐸0to the absolute gravitostatic unit of charge 𝐸0/𝑐, where 𝐸0is a basic unit of energy:𝐸0=ℎ𝑐𝑎⁄.
The surface of the Nucleus is created in a process analogous to sublimation. Continuous creation of matter is the result of this process. Sublimation is a well–known endothermic process that happens when surfaces are intrinsically more energetically favorable than the bulk of a material, and hence there is a driving force for surfaces to be created. Dark Matter (DM) is created by the Universe in the 4D Nucleus of the World.
Dark Matter Particles (DMPs) carry new DM into the 3D Hypersphere World.Ordinary Matter is a byproduct of DMPs self–annihilation. Consequently, a matter–antimatter asymmetry problem discussed in literature does not arise (since antimatter does not get created by DMPs self–annihilation). By analogy with 3D ball, which has two–dimensionalsphere surface (that has surface energy), we can imagine that the 3D Hypersphere World has a “Surface Energy” of the 4D Nucleus.
The proposed process is a 4D process responsible for the expansion, creation of Matter and arrow of Time. It is a Hypothesis of WUM. In our view, the arrow of the Cosmological Time does not depend on any physical phenomenon in the Medium of the World. It is the result of the Worlds’ expansion due to the driving force for surfaces to be created. It is important to emphasize that
- Creation of Matter is a direct consequence of expansion;
- Creation of DM occurs homogeneously in all points of the Hypersphere World.
This is taken from a very long paper. Read the rest here: researchgate.net
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